So...dictation, spelling, how to write down English words...Sometimes a painful process. Especially, if you are a beginner in English.
The adjective unetymological means: a word not in accordance with etymology. Why do I mention this? Well, sounds are essential in English, so as to create a grapheme and ultimately spell the word:
If writing were sounds written down, why does English have so many ways to spell the same sound? Why so many so-called “silent letters”? Because written language is not sound writing.
Letters can spell sounds. But not all letters spell sounds. Within the English spelling system, letters can function as markers (etymological, phonological, lexical) or be zeroed.
<α>
<aisle>: the <a> is a marker added on the model of the French cognate (συγγενή) <aile>, from Old French <ele> and ultimately from Latin <ala>
<b>
<bomb>: the <b> spells the zero phone, compare the relative <bombard> in which the <b> spells [b]
<climb>: the <b> spells the zero phone, from Old English <climban>, compare the relative <clamber> in which the <b> spells [b]
<comb>: the <b> spells the zero phone, from Old English <camb>, compare the relative <unkempt> (<b> and <p> share an etymological relationship)
<debt>: the <b> is an etymological marker, from Latin <debitum>, compare the relative <debit>
<doubt>: the <b> is an etymological marker, from Latin <dubitare>, from duo meaning “two,” <doubt> and <double> are relatives
<dumb>: the <b> spells the zero phone, compare the complex relative <dumbo> in which the <b> spells [b]
<limb>: “edge of a quadrant or other instrument,” the <b> spells the zero phone, from Latin <limbus>, compare the complex relative <limbal> in which the <b> spells [b]
<numb>: the <b> is unetymological from the 17th century to conform with the spelling of other words that end in the letters <mb>, from <nome> and ultimately Old English <niman>
<plumb>: the <b> spells the zero phone, from Latin <plumbum> via Old French, compare to relatives <plumbago> and <plumbic> in which the <b> spells [b]
<c>
<muscle>: the <c> spells the zero phone, compare the relative <muscular> in which the <c> spells the <k>
<ch>
<yacht>: the <ch> is an etymological marker, from Middle Low German <jacht> (shortened form of <jachtschip>) in which the <ch> spelled [x]
<d>
<handkerchief>: the <d> spells the zero phone in complex word <hand + kerchief> (see <hands>)
<hands>: the <d> can spell the zero phone in complex word <hand + s>, compare the base <hand> in which the <d> spells [d]
<handsome>: the <d> can spell the zero phone in complex word <hand + some>, compare the base <hand> in which the <d> spells [d]
<grandfather>, <grandpa>, <grandmother>, <grandma>, <grandson>: the <d> can spell the zero phone in complex familial words <grand + X>
<sandwich>: the <d> can spell the zero phone in some Englishes
<Wednesday>: the <d> is an etymological marker, from Old English <wodnesdæg> meaning “Woden’s day” (see <e>)
<e>
<camera>: the <e> can spell the zero phone, compare the related word <cameral> in which the <e> spells [ɛ]
<eye>: the first <e> is a lexical marker and the <ye> is a digraph, compare bye, rye, lye
<gardener>: the first <e> can spell the zero phone, compare the related word <garden> in which the <e> spells [ə]
<vegetable>: the second <e> spells the zero phone, compare the base <vegete> and the relatives <vegetative> and <vegetarian> in which the <e> spells [ə]
<Wednesday>: the <e> is a marker, from Old English <wodnesdæg> meaning “Woden’s day” (see <d>)
<were>: the <e> is a lexical marker, <were> is a function word and could thus be spelled <*wer> but the form developed in the 18th century and therefore has a lexical spelling
<g>
<diaphragm>: the <g> spells the zero phone, compare the relative <diaphragmatic> in which the <g> spells [g]
<paradigm>: the <g> spells the zero phone, compare the relative <paradigmatic> in which the <g> spells [g]
<sign>: the <g> spells the zero phone, compare the complex relatives <signature> and <signal> in which the <g> spells [g] (also morphological relatives including, but not limited to, <assign>, <assignment>, <cosign>, <consign>, <countersign>, <design>, <ensign>, <resign>, and <undersign>)
<h>
Words such as <brochure>, <chef>, <machine>, <mustache>, and <parachute>, among others, contain the digraph <ch>. The <ch> spells [ʃ].
<shepherd>: the <h> spells the zero phone, compare the base <herd> in which the <h> spells [h]
<vehicle>: the <h> spells the zero phone, compare the complex relative <vehicular> in which the <h> spells [h], from French <véhicule> and Latin <vehiculum> and ultimately Latin <vehere> meaning “to bear, carry, convey”
<i>
<business>: the <i> spells the zero phone, compare the <y> in the base <busy> (<business> is a complex word that consists of <busy + ness>, <y> and <i> can toggle)
<conscience>: the <i> spells the zero phone, compare the relative <science> in which the <i> spells [ɑi]
<family>: the <i> spells the zero phone, compare the relative <familiar> in which the <i> spells [ɪ]
<friend>: the <i> spells the zero phone in the complex word that consists of <fri + end>, compare the relative <fri + day -> Friday>
<fruit>: the <i> spells the zero phone, compare the relative <fruition> in which the <i> spells [ɪ]
<igh>
The trigraph <igh> can spell [ɑi] in words such as <blight>, <bright>, <flight>, <high>, <knight>, <nigh>, <plight>, <sigh>, <thigh>, <fight>, <light>, <might>, <night>, <right>, and <tight>.
<k>
Words such as <knight>, <knife>, <know>, <knew>, and <known>, among others, contain the digraph <kn>. The <kn> spells [n].
<l>
<should>: the <l> is an etymological marker, from Old English <sceolde> the past tense of <sceal> meaning “shall,” related to <shall> (see <could> and <would>)
<stalk>: the <l> is an etymological marker, from Old English <-stealcian> and from <stale>, related to <steal>
<talk>: the <l> is an etymological marker, from Middle English <talken>, related to <tale> and <tell>
<walk>: the <l> is an etymological marker, from Old English <wealcan>, related to <well> and <welter>
<would>: the <l> is an etymological marker, from Old English <wolde> the past tense and past subjunctive of <willan> meaning “to will,” related to <will> (see <could> and <should>)
<n>
<autumn>: the <n> spells the zero phone, compare the complex relative <autumnal> in which the <n> spells [n]
<column>: the <n> spells the zero phone, compare the complex relatives <columnist> and <columnar> in which the <n> spells [n]
<hymn>: the <n> spells the zero phone, compare the complex relative <hymnal> in which the <n> spells [n]
<o>
<favorite>: the <o> can spell the zero phone, compare the relative <favor> in which the <o> spells [ɔ]
<history>: the <o> can spell the zero phone, compare the complex relative <historic> in which the <o> spells [ɔ]
<leopard>: the <o> spells the zero phone, compare the relative <Leo> in which the <o> spells [oʊ]
<p>
<cupboard>: the <p> spells the zero phone, from <cup + board>, the <p> in the base morpheme <cup> spells [p]
<pterodactyl>: the <p> spells the zero phone in the complex word that consists of <pter + o + dactyl>, compare the relative <helicopter> in which the <p> spells [p]
<s>
<aisle>: the <s> is a marker added because of the <s> in the etymologically unrelated <isle>, from Old French <ele> and ultimately from Latin <ala> (see <a>)
<island>: the <s> is a marker added because of the <s> in the etymologically unrelated <isle>, from Old English <yland>, <igland>, and <iegland> and ultimately from <ieg> meaning “island”
<isle>: the <s> is an etymological marker, from Old French <ile> and <isle> from Latin <insula> “island” (unrelated to <island>)
<th>
<asthma>: the <th> is an etymological marker, from Greek <asthma>
<clothes>: the <th> spells the zero phone, compare the relatives <cloth> and <clothe>
<u>
<build>: the <u> is a marker, from Middle English <bilden> and ultimately from late Old English <byldan>, compare the related word <bower> meaning “a shady place or shaded shelter,” the graphemes <u> and <w> are related so the <u> in <build> marks the etymological relationship with <bower>
<buy>: the <u> is a marker, from Old English <bycgan>, the simple past of <buy> is <bought> in which the <ugh> is an etymological marker that marks the history from the Old English <bohte>, the <u> in <buy> marks a relationship with the <ugh> in <bought> (see <bought>)
<ugh>
<bought>: the <ugh> is an etymological marker that marks a relationship with the <u> in <buy>, from the Old English <bohte> (see <buy>)
<w>
Words such as <wrench>, <wrinkle>, <wrist>, and <write>, among others, contain the digraph <wr>. The <wr> spells [ɹ].
<answer>: the <w> is an etymological marker, from Old English <andswaru> and <answarian>, related to <swear> in which the <w> spells [w]
<sword>: the <w> is an etymological marker, from Old English <sweord, swyrd> in which the <w> spelled [w]
<two>: the <w> is an etymological marker that marks a relationship with words such as <twelve>, <twenty>, <twin>, <twice>, <twist>, and <twilight>
